Down to Earth But Heavenly Minded

What does Philippians Chapter 3 mean?

Philippians chapter 3 speaks about Christ as the proper focus during times of suffering. Philippians 2 sets this passage up in the context of persecution and oppression for the sake of the gospel. First, Paul discusses the importance of righteousness through faith in Christ rather than by works (Philippians 3:1–11). Second, Paul talks about straining toward the goal of following Christ (Philippians 3:12–21).

In Philippians 3:1–11, Paul begins with a reminder to “rejoice in the Lord” (Philippians 3:1). He also warns his readers to “look out” for certain specific types of false teachers (Philippians 3:2). Those who required Jewish circumcision, or other rituals, as part of salvation were not part of the true family of faith. The true “circumcision” are those who worship by the Spirit of God and glory in Christ Jesus (Philippians 3:3).

Paul then adds his own spiritual resume, noting his reasons to boast “in the flesh” (Philippians 3:4). They included: circumcision on the eighth day; being from Israel, specifically the tribe of Benjamin; being a Pharisee; persecuting the church; and living according to the law (Philippians 3:5–6). Paul’s point is that if any human being could be justified by the law, he would be—and yet, he considers all of that wasted in comparison to Christ (Philippians 3:7–8). Nothing was more important than knowing Jesus.

Paul’s focus is to be “found in [Christ],” finding a righteousness not based on works of the law but on faith (Philippians 3:9). His goal is to know Christ and the power of His resurrection. He wants to also share in His sufferings, becoming like Him in his death (Philippians 3:10).

In the second half of the chapter, Paul speaks of pressing on or straining toward Christ-like living (Philippians 3:12–21). He begins by stating that he is not yet perfect, but is working toward living more like Christ (Philippians 3:12). He does not focus on the past, but on the future (Philippians 3:13). He is committed to the goal of the calling of Christ Jesus (Philippians 3:14). All mature believers are to live this way (Philippians 3:15), holding on to the progress they have already attained (Philippians 3:16).

Paul then calls the believers to imitate him (Philippians 3:17). In contrast, many live as enemies of the cross of Christ (Philippians 3:18), something that brought tears to Paul. These people were focused on their own satisfaction and were set on earthly things (Philippians 3:19). In contrast, the believer’s citizenship is in heaven. Believers await the return of Christ (Philippians 3:20). Christ will change the human bodies of believers into a new body like Christ has, something that should bring believers joy (Philippians 3:21).

Chapter Context
In chapters 1 and 2, Paul explained how Christians should respond to hardships. Since Christ was willing to obey God, even to the point of death, we should do the same. Complaining and worry have no place in the life of a saved believer. Chapter 3 makes a bold contrast. Paul’s credentials, according to Jewish tradition, were impeccable. And yet, for him, none of those accomplishments are worth anything next to fellowship with Christ. For this reason, Christ is to be the sole focus of the believer. This sets up Paul’s final greetings and instructions in chapter 4.

Verse by Verse

Verse 1. Finally, my brothers, rejoice in the Lord. To write the same things to you is no trouble to me and is safe for you.

This verse marks a transition from the first half of Paul’s letter to a new section. Paul notes the shift by explicitly referring to rejoicing. Despite the struggles both he and the church faced, they were to have joy in God. “Rejoice” is a theme repeated nine times in this letter, seen in Philippians 1:18 (twice); 2:17, 18, 28; 3:1; 4:4 (twice), and 10. To rejoice is often associated with both community and with rejoicing in the Lord. This is part of Paul’s continued emphasis on the mind-set, or the attitude, of a Christian believer.

Based on this verse, it seems likely Paul had taught the Philippians about rejoicing in the past. This may also be a reference to the instructions he is about to give, involving false teachers. Coaches and mentors often note that repetition is a key to getting a message across. For Paul to remind the Philippians about rejoicing was nothing difficult for him. And, the reminder was certainly beneficial for them. Given Paul’s present circumstances it was particularly easy for him to include this as part of his message, at least in writing. That a man imprisoned for the sake of Christ is reminding free people to “rejoice” is also striking.

Context Summary
Philippians 3:1–11 warns Christians about the influence of false teachers, particularly those who add legalism on top of the gospel. Paul describes his impressive credentials, showing that he has the right to consider himself ”justified” according to the traditional Jewish view. And yet, knowing what he does of Christ, Paul sees all of those accomplishments as garbage. Faith alone saves, and fellowship with Christ is all that truly matters.

Verse 2. Look out for the dogs, look out for the evildoers, look out for those who mutilate the flesh.

This verse is summarized by the words “look out.” Paul is giving specific warnings about certain groups, who seem to have been troubling the Philippian Christians. Paul might have heard of these struggles from Epaphroditus, who had come to him from the Philippian church before falling ill (Philippians 2:25).

First, the Philippian Christians were warned about those Paul labels as “dogs.” Unlike today’s domesticated pets, dogs in first century Philippi were generally wild pack animals. They were aggressive scavengers and thieves, devouring whatever food they could find (Matthew 7:6; 15:26, 27; Mark 7:27, 28; Luke 16:21; 2 Peter 2:22; Revelation 22:15). False teachers, like those Paul will describe, are looking for their own interests. They are not truly part of the family of faith, but are seeking to take whatever they can get from others.

Second, the Philippians were warned against those who were actually doing evil: false teachers. This was a theme Paul also warned other groups of Christians about (2 Corinthians 11:13). One particular group Paul cautions against are the “Judaizers” (Titus 1:10). These were teachers who claimed that faith in Christ was not enough for salvation. These people added the requirements of the Old Testament law on top of the gospel. This focus on legalism turned the practice of circumcision from an act of obedience into a “mutilation” of the flesh.

In contrast, Paul refers to faith in Christ as the “true circumcision” in the next verse. These false teachers sought to promote adherence to the Torah as part of Christianity, something Paul spoke against. Salvation is by grace through faith in Christ (Ephesians 2:8–9), not by works, including works of the law.

Verse 3. For we are the circumcision, who worship by the Spirit of God and glory in Christ Jesus and put no confidence in the flesh —

This verse explains the safety Paul had referred to in verse 1. Paul promoted salvation by faith, not by following Jewish customs. As the most obvious physical sign of Judaism, “circumcision” is often used as a metaphor for the entire Old Testament law.

Instead of hollow legalism, true followers of Jesus are marked by three practices. First, their worship is spiritual and recognizable by a focus on the Holy Spirit’s work in their lives.

Second, they put their faith and worship in Christ, not the law. The Old Testament law looked forward to the Messiah, but did not know who He would be. Believers glory in Christ Jesus, who had been revealed as the Son of God, the predicted Jewish Messiah.

Third, Christians don’t stake their eternity, or their spiritual lives, on rituals or their own good works. Again, circumcision is part of the general context here. The proper confidence of a Christian is not in whether a person has been circumcised—or followed some other religious ritual—but whether they have received salvation through faith in Jesus.

The ritual of circumcision is not morally wrong now, and was not wrong when Paul wrote this letter. Paul would soon note his own circumcision (Philippians 3:5). In the same way, adherence to the Torah was also positive, but not absolutely required (Philippians 3:7). However, in comparison with knowing Christ, these things were unimportant (Philippians 3:7–8). In particular, they are not something that can grant forgiveness of sins before God. Jesus offers a righteousness that is not of the law, but through faith (Philippians 3:9).

Verse 4. though I myself have reason for confidence in the flesh also. If anyone else thinks he has reason for confidence in the flesh, I have more:

Though Paul identified with those who believe by faith, he had all of the proper Jewish credentials. There was no more qualified individual, in terms of the Old Testament and Jewish tradition, than Paul. In other words, if someone were to judge Paul’s spirituality on the basis of Judaic requirements, he had the right areas covered. This section is not Paul’s attempt to prove his own worth by works. On the contrary, Paul is making that point that nobody can be truly justified by anything other than faith. Even his own impressive resume, expounded in verses 5–6, is not enough.

Paul precedes his laundry list of credentials by noting that his Jewish accomplishments far surpass those of his spiritual opponents, who sought to justify themselves by the law. Yet Paul teaches that these traits are unimportant for those who seek to truly know God. He counts them as “loss” for the sake of Christ (Philippians 3:7). His goal was to know the power of the resurrection and sufferings of Christ (Philippians 3:9–10). He had not reached that status yet, but continued to pursue this way of life (Philippians 3:12). Further, Paul called others to imitate his way of life to please God (Philippians 3:17).

Verse 5. circumcised on the eighth day, of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; as to the law, a Pharisee;

Verses 5 and 6 provide a list of seven important traits found in Paul’s life as a devout Jew. His reason for listing these is to prove that he, of all people, has the right to comment on the futility of works. Paul is not claiming salvation by faith as an escape attempt. His message is not an excuse for personal failure—that he cannot, or will not, meet some requirement of the Old Testament law. On the contrary, Paul has fulfilled it better than those who criticize him for preaching saving faith!

Paul’s birth and ancestry were impeccable, according to Jewish standards. Paul had been circumcised on the eighth day. His parents did this in accordance with God’s command given to Abraham (Genesis 17:12). Paul was truly, naturally, of the “people of Israel.” In other words, he was born Jewish rather than being a convert to Judaism. Specifically, he was from the tribe of Benjamin.

Paul’s training and lifestyle were also perfect, according to Judaism. Paul calls himself a “Hebrew of Hebrews.” He was raised according to Jewish customs and had learned the Hebrew language (Acts 22:2). Paul was a Pharisee, the most religiously conservative group of Jews in his time. Pharisees were known for strictly following Jewish laws and customs. They are particularly noted in the Gospels for their devotion to traditions of the law. They felt that this kept them pure before the Lord. Interestingly, this verse is the only mention of Pharisees outside of the Gospels and Acts.

Verse 6. as to zeal, a persecutor of the church; as to righteousness under the law, blameless.

Paul continues his list of Jewish credentials, begun in verse 5. His purpose is to support his right to preach salvation by faith, instead of by works. Paul met every ritual and legal requirement of Judaism, better than any of his detractors. And yet, he realized that this was not what made him righteous before God: that comes by faith alone.

Here, he mentions his burning passion for Judaism, which led him to brutally persecute Christians before his own conversion. Paul was originally named “Saul,” and was infamous for his harassment of the church before being changed by Christ (Acts 9). When he first became a believer, many Christians feared accepting him.

Paul notes also that, according to the Torah and ritual law, he was obedient. He followed the Jewish traditions, and kept himself ritually clean. Very few Jews could make this claim. Even fewer could match all of the claims Paul has listed in these few verses. This is why Paul could say, even to those who thought they had reasons to be confident in their rituals and works, that he had “more” (Philippians 3:4).

All of this sets Paul up for a stark contrast, beginning in verse 7. After noting his human accomplishments, he discards them all as “loss” for the sake of Christ. Regardless of his worldly success, his hope was found in knowing Christ Jesus as Lord and living for Him (Philippians 3:8).

Verse 7. But whatever gain I had, I counted as loss for the sake of Christ.

Paul’s words in this powerful verse include two important phrases. Paul had just mentioned seven important characteristics of his Jewish faith. He adhered to the highest standards of his religion, claiming to have more confidence in the flesh than his opponents (Philippians 3:4). This would be something like a major religious leader today saying “No matter how many degrees I have or accomplishments I have achieved.” His human accomplishments had been many, but were considered unimportant in comparison to his relationship with Christ.

The second phrase notes this priority. The contrast between “gain” and “loss” is clear. Paul’s human accomplishments, even in the area of religion, were of no value compared to the greatness of knowing Jesus. In fact, he would have gladly traded those for more time, fellowship, and discipleship with Christ. Paul specifically notes the “sake of Christ.” He uses this phrase in Philippians 1:29 as well as in 2 Corinthians 12:10 and Philemon 1:6.

Verse 8. Indeed, I count everything as loss because of the surpassing worth of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord. For his sake I have suffered the loss of all things and count them as rubbish, in order that I may gain Christ

To Paul, nothing else mattered in comparison to Christ. This included his religion, his family, his career, and his past accomplishments (Philippians 3:5–6). His single goal was Christ. Paul further emphasizes this focus when he notes what he has given up for the sake of the gospel. From Paul’s perspective, he had sacrificed all of the worldly accomplishments mentioned in the prior verses. He had left Jerusalem and the temple in exchange for Rome and imprisonment. He had no freedom to travel or to live as he pleased. Yet he thought of those prior glories as “rubbish.”

Verse 9. and be found in him, not having a righteousness of my own that comes from the law, but that which comes through faith in Christ, the righteousness from God that depends on faith —

Paul wanted to both “gain Christ” (Philippians 3:8) and “be found in him.” These words indicate the idea of receiving and being included with Jesus. Paul realized his works would never be sufficient to cover his sins. Instead, he could only know God by faith in Christ. This is part of Paul’s reason for referring to works and rituals as “garbage,” as in the prior verse. These things not only cannot save, they can actually impede our walk with Christ. Anything we rely on, or take pride in, more than Christ is a barrier to our fellowship with Him.

In fact, the second part of this verse notes the importance of faith twice. Only faith can make us right with God (Ephesians 2:8–9). Also, Christ gave Paul his faith and his faith depended completely on God. Paul saw no other source for salvation than Jesus. His view reflected that of the apostles, who noted in Acts 4:12 that the name of Jesus was the only way a person could be saved. Jesus Himself taught that He was the way, the truth, and the life (John 14:6).

Verse 10. that I may know him and the power of his resurrection, and may share his sufferings, becoming like him in his death,

that I may know him and the power of his resurrection, and may share his sufferings, becoming like him in his death,

Verse 11. that by any means possible I may attain the resurrection from the dead.

In addition to the three traits Paul gave in verse 10, he adds one additional area to conclude this passage. Paul has already noted one form of resurrection, as well as suffering and death. Here, we find a focus on obtaining resurrection. What did Paul have in mind? Many views have been given regarding what Paul means by this peculiar phrase. The most likely views include either the rapture (1 Corinthians 15:50–58; 1 Thessalonians 4:13–18), or that faithful believers will have a better resurrection in the future than other believers. While these are legitimate points, it is uncertain whether this is Paul’s intended meaning in this verse.

The simplest view follows Paul’s progression in the previous verse: 1) resurrection (new life in Christ), 2) sufferings, 3) death, 4) and resurrection from the dead (a future reference to the resurrection of the dead). Though this is consistent with the view of the rapture, Paul does not appear to be specific to the rapture itself in these words and speaks more generally about his future resurrection from the dead.

Verse 12. Not that I have already obtained this or am already perfect, but I press on to make it my own, because Christ Jesus has made me his own.

Paul has just spoken about his future death and resurrection with Christ. Someday, he will be made complete and perfect before the Lord (Philippians 3:10–11). He begins a new section in this verse, starting with an important qualifying statement. Paul does not want his readers to think he saw himself as perfect and sinless. He is clear that his life is a work in progress (Romans 7). Paul has not yet been made like Christ, in a resurrected body, and has not yet reached the point of being without sin. This accomplishment is something which only happens when we are perfected in heaven.

Instead of claiming to be perfect now, Paul continues to pursue becoming more like Christ. A Christ-like life is not a moment to achieve, but a goal to pursue. Paul knows he would never be perfect in this world, but instead made it his ambition to become increasingly like Christ in this life.

Context Summary
Philippians 3:12—4:1 explains the proper attitude Christians ought to have on the process of ”sanctification.” This is the gradual, lifelong path of becoming more and more like Jesus. Our place in eternity is secure from the moment we trust in Christ, but it takes time to see our actions and attitudes change to be like His. Paul notes that he is not perfect, but encourages Christians to mimic his singular focus on pursuing Jesus. Paul also weeps for those who reject the gospel, a choice that will result in their destruction.

Verse 13. Brothers, I do not consider that I have made it my own. But one thing I do: forgetting what lies behind and straining forward to what lies ahead,

Paul’s goal is perfection, but he has not reached it yet. He is not faultless, nor does he expect to achieve perfection before his death. Instead, he uses the analogy of a runner in a race to depict the motivation of his spiritual life. Like a dedicated runner, he has a single goal. Just as a runner cannot be successful unless they concentrate on the race, neither can Paul be successful growing in Christ if he allows other goals to interfere.

Continuing the running analogy, Paul also chooses to live by an important principle: keeping his attention on the road in front of him. A runner cannot look back and still focus on the goal ahead. The two ideas are mutually exclusive. A runner’s goal is to focus on the next step toward his or her goal. Paul’s spiritual life is the same. He will not look back to past steps, but focus on improving each step in his race until reaching the goal of being with Christ.

Christians can learn from the past, but we are not bound to the things we have done. Instead of being chained by our past mistakes, we can move forward, knowing that we carry Christ’s forgiveness.

Verse 14. I press on toward the goal for the prize of the upward call of God in Christ Jesus.

Paul has used the analogy of a runner who focuses on the goal ahead of him. This prevents distractions and stumbling. Paul’s spiritual goal is stated directly here: “the prize of the upward call of God in Christ Jesus.”

As verse 13 notes, Paul’s focus is on forward momentum, not prior mistakes. A person cannot move ahead if their thoughts and vision are focused on the past. Paul has a clear goal: being in heaven with the Lord. He looks forward to the ultimate reward for his faithful service. This prize is to be with Christ, though there is some uncertainty about what he specifically meant, in the context of this remark.

Is this “upward call” a reference to the rapture, or to his death? Paul does not appear to distinguish between these two ideas, at least in this context. He simply writes about the goal of pursuing Christ until he meets with Him after this life. This is a useful focus for believers today as well. The point is not to worry so much about whether we will die first, or if Christ will return. Rather, we should be prepared for whenever and however we meet with Christ. Paul’s teaching was to not look back at the past, but instead to focus on what we can do today and in the days ahead to live for Christ until we meet with Him.

Verse 15. Let those of us who are mature think this way, and if in anything you think otherwise, God will reveal that also to you.

In verses 12–14, Paul discussed how his life is a work in progress. Paul is not perfect, and he knows it. Rather than dwell on the past, he is committed to the future. Like a runner focused on the road ahead, Paul serves God intently focused on his ultimate goal, which is an eternity with Christ. Here, he transitions to the application of those teachings.

This perspective is the result of wisdom, maturity, and experience. Paul expects his readers to join him in pursuing Christ above all else. He believes so strongly that this is the correct approach that he leaves no room for excuses. Though Paul elsewhere speaks of room for disagreement among Christian believers (Romans 14), this is one point on which there is no room for alternate views. If anyone did not agree, Paul’s hope was that God would change his or her mind.

These words are important for one primary reason. The goal of becoming more Christ-like does not apply only to Christian leaders. This is not a call only for “super-Christians,” it is to be the goal of every believer. The path Paul provided was the expectation for every Christian, in the church at Philippi, as well as our own congregations today. As believers, we are taught to consider everything in life worthless in comparison with knowing Christ and becoming more like Him. There are a variety of gifts and callings, but there is only one attitude to have when it comes to growing spiritually: pursue Christ above all else.

Verse 16. Only let us hold true to what we have attained.

Verse 15 set a lofty goal: putting the pursuit of Christ above all things. Paul calls on all Christians to seek fellowship with Jesus first, and to treat every other concern as “rubbish.” Verse 16 seems to be something of a concession, to encourage those who know they are not walking in that path, yet. At the very least, his readers were not to fall back into previous sinful practices. This is part and parcel of his runner’s analogy: move forward and focus on Christ. As a minimum, he expected believers to not lose progress in following Christ. In terms of his racing example, Paul is encouraging the Philippians to not lose ground, even if they don’t feel they’re gaining it.

An interesting connection is also seen with the words translated “attain” in verse 11 and here. In verse 11, the Greek word is katantēsō, in verse 16, it is ephthasamen. Both involve the concept of achieving, accomplishing, or arriving. In verse 11, Paul’s focus was to attain “the resurrection of the dead,” referring to his future with Christ. In verse 16, the focus is on holding on to what has already been attained. Though not the main point of this passage, Paul connects with the idea of believers who have confidence in their salvation, a theme he and others address elsewhere in the New Testament (Romans 8:37–39; 1 John 5:13).

Verse 17. Brothers, join in imitating me, and keep your eyes on those who walk according to the example you have in us.

The goal of a Christian is to become more like Christ (Philippians 3:11–16). Since his focus is entirely on this goal, and he considers all other pursuits “rubbish,” Paul teaches his readers to mimic his approach. Paul’s best teaching tool is more than a letter—it is his life. Paul can appeal to his own example as a model for his readers because his focus is on Christ. This shows clearly in his words, actions, and attitudes.

Paul’s suggestion is not coming from a sense of arrogance. He has already noted his own imperfection (Philippians 3:12). Paul also teaches the Philippians to look to the example of other godly people. In a time before the completed New Testament, a living example was especially important. Even today, the lives of godly people—seen in person or in a biography—can inspire us to deeper spiritual growth. Jesus also used the tool of personal example when teaching His followers (John 13:15). Hebrews 11 offers the examples of other godly people given as inspiration to believers.

Verse 18. For many, of whom I have often told you and now tell you even with tears, walk as enemies of the cross of Christ.

After making an appeal for his readers to follow his good example, and the example of other Christians, Paul’s reference to those who chose a darker path is highly emotional. Paul is confident in the truth, and willing to preach it, no matter what. At the same time, he feels compassion for those who reject the gospel, or who wallow in sin. In 2 Corinthians 2:4, Paul wrote, “For I wrote to you out of much affliction and anguish of heart and with many tears.” Paul often expressed deep emotion, sometimes including weeping, as a response to charged situations.

In this context, Paul’s tears are for the unsaved. He refers to them as those who “walk as enemies of the cross of Christ.” These words prove that Paul was not a man who coldly and arrogantly defended his opinions. He had sincere, loving concern for the souls of these lost people. His goal was their salvation. The fact that they did not know Christ caused him much grief. His tears were probably not only for the souls that were lost, but also the fact that Christianity counted so many enemies. Even today, believers are called to pray for our enemies (Matthew 5:44), and care for sinners (James 5:20), in the hope that God will turn their hearts towards Jesus.

Verse 19. Their end is destruction, their god is their belly, and they glory in their shame, with minds set on earthly things.

In verse 18, Paul expressed his sorrow over the plight of unsaved false teachers. In this verse, he offers four descriptions regarding their behaviors. First these false teachers are not simply Christians who misunderstood a portion of the gospel. These are unsaved individuals, rejecting the gospel itself, and who will experience destruction apart from faith in Christ. Second, for false teachers, Paul notes their focus on greed. Many false teachers, then and now, seek money in order to make a profit (1 Timothy 6:5), rather than truly serving the Lord. In contrast to Christ-like believers, false teachers are more concerned with their own desires than the needs of other people (Romans 16:18).

Third, these false teachers call evil good, and promote sinful actions as being right. More than simply excusing sin, they celebrate it, and take pride in it.

Fourth, the goal of false teachers is not on Christ and being with Him for eternity. In contrast with Paul’s teachings, throughout chapter 3, their goal is on the here and now. Their only thought is what they can get out of life—and other people—today. All four of these traits are posed as the opposite of what believers should pursue in following Christ. Believers are to know Christ, be humble, promote what is right, and set their minds on heavenly things.

Verse 20. But our citizenship is in heaven, and from it we await a Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ,

In contrast with false teachers who focus on “earthly things” (Philippians 3:19), believers should have a much different perspective on life. As Paul notes, once again, our homeland is in heaven, not here on earth. Responsible citizenship is important, but our ultimate destiny isn’t in this world, but with the Lord in heaven. Jesus likewise taught that His kingdom is not of this world (John 18:36) and that He is not of this world (John 8:23).

Instead of temporary things on earth, a believer’s focus is on Christ and His return. We should not focus on greed, sin, and the things of this world. Instead, our concern ought to be on what pleases God. The apostles believed Jesus could come back at any time, teaching Christ will come as He promised (John 14:1–3) at any moment (1 Corinthians 15:50–58; 1 Thessalonians 4:13–18). Believers are to live holy lives, prepared for His return. Further, we are to help make disciples of all nations, sharing the good news with others so they can also spend eternity with the Lord (Matthew 28:18–20).

Verse 21. who will transform our lowly body to be like his glorious body, by the power that enables him even to subject all things to himself.

This verse ends the passage on a positive note. Saved believers can look forward to a time when every pain and problem with our earthly body will be exchanged for a new and improved body, one that will last forever with the Lord.

The power that will create our new bodies is unlimited. Paul’s description refers back to Philippians 2:6–11. At the name of Jesus, every knee will bow and every tongue will confess (Philippians 2:10–11). He is the name that is above every name (Philippians 2:9). Jesus is equal with God (Philippians 2:6) and all things are subject to Him. Paul reminds his readers that this perfect God, with a perfect resurrected body, certainly has the power to return and provide a glorified body to those who believe in Him. Believers can take comfort in their future, knowing God has the power to transform our bodies and keep us secure with Him in His coming kingdom.

End of Chapter 3.

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